Martin Luther founded the Lutheran Church in the early 16th century as a result of the Protestant Reformation. A former Augustinian friar, Luther’s critique of Roman Catholic teachings—particularly on indulgences and papal authority—sparked a massive theological and ecclesiastical upheaval. His famous Ninety-five Theses (1517) challenged Catholic practices and initiated a movement that transformed Christianity forever.

While the Reformed Church emerged from the broader Protestant Reformation with contributions from Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, and others, John Calvin became its central architect. His seminal work, Institutes of the Christian Religion (first published 1536), and his leadership in Geneva established him as the movement’s defining figure. The term “Calvinism” derives from his name, though “Reformed” is preferred to reflect the movement’s broader origins.

The Anglican Church was formally established in 1534 when King Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic Church. The separation was driven primarily by the Pope’s refusal to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. With Parliament’s support, Henry enacted the Act of Supremacy, declaring himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. While Henry initiated the break, the theological foundations were shaped by Thomas Cranmer (author of the Book of Common Prayer, 1549) and later monarchs Edward VI and Elizabeth I, who established Anglicanism’s distinctive “middle way” between Catholicism and Protestantism.

The Baptist tradition traces its origins to John Smyth, who in 1609 led a group of Separatists in Amsterdam to reject infant baptism, believing only professing believers should be baptized. Smyth baptized himself and his followers in what became the first Baptist church. Thomas Helwys led a group back to England in 1612, establishing the first Baptist church on English soil. In North America, Roger Williams founded the first Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island (c. 1638), and John Clarke established another in Newport (1644). These pioneers emphasized religious liberty and congregational autonomy—principles that became foundational to Baptist identity.

John Wesley founded the Methodist movement in the 18th century as a revival initiative within the Church of England. Though Wesley remained an Anglican clergyman throughout his life, his organized societies, circuit system, and preaching efforts laid the foundation for what became the independent Methodist Church. Wesley established Methodist societies in England starting in 1738 and chartered the first Methodist Church in the United States in 1784. His emphasis on personal holiness, social justice, and disciplined Christian living created a distinct movement that influenced the Holiness and Pentecostal movements.

The Adventist movement originated with William Miller, who began preaching in the 1830s about the imminent Second Coming of Jesus Christ. His teachings, based on Daniel 8:14, led to the widespread Millerite Movement, which peaked in the early 1840s. When Christ did not return as expected on October 22, 1844—an event known as the “Great Disappointment”—most followers left. However, a small group continued studying the Bible and developed new understandings, leading to the formal establishment of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in 1863 under leaders like Joseph Bates, James White, and Ellen G. White.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church was formally founded in 1863 in Battle Creek, Michigan, by a core group including Joseph Bates (who championed Saturday Sabbath observance), James White (minister and publisher), and Ellen G. White (whose prophetic visions and writings became foundational to the church). Along with J.N. Andrews, Hiram Edson, and Uriah Smith, these leaders shaped distinctive Adventist doctrines including the investigative judgment, soul sleep, and the heavenly sanctuary. Ellen G. White’s writings remain highly influential in the church today.

Charles Taze Russell founded the Bible Student movement in the 1870s, which later evolved into Jehovah’s Witnesses. Russell co-founded the Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 and promoted end-time prophecies based on biblical numerology. While the group considers Jesus Christ the true founder of Christianity, Russell is recognized as the key organizer of the modern movement. The name “Jehovah’s Witnesses” was officially adopted in 1931 under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford, following Russell’s death. The organization reported approximately 9.2 million members worldwide as of 2025.

Joseph Smith founded The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, originally organized as the Church of Christ on April 6, 1830, in Fayette, New York. Smith claimed to have received divine revelation and translated the Book of Mormon from golden plates delivered by an angel. He served as the church’s first president until his assassination on June 27, 1844, in Carthage, Illinois. Following his death, Brigham Young led the majority of followers to the Salt Lake Valley in present-day Utah, establishing the church’s headquarters. The church has grown to over 17.5 million members worldwide as of 2024.

The Pentecostal movement was primarily founded by Charles Fox Parham, who in 1901 taught that speaking in tongues (glossolalia) was the “Bible evidence” of being baptized in the Holy Spirit. However, William James Seymour, a Black evangelist and former student of Parham, played the pivotal role in spreading the movement globally. In 1906, Seymour led the famous Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, which became the birthplace of modern Pentecostalism. Though Parham and Seymour had a falling out, Seymour’s multiracial revival catalyzed the worldwide expansion of Pentecostalism, giving rise to denominations like the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ.